Skewed distributions are asymmetrical, meaning a majority of scores fall heavily on one side of the distribution. Whether or not a distribution is positive or negative is about where the fewest scores lie or the outliers -- to determine this, follow the tail. 

Memory Trick (look at the I's and E's):

Positive = Tail on the right

Negative = Tail on the left

What about measures of central tendency?

Median will always be in the middle by definition.

Mode is where the most frequent scores lie – look toward the hump.

Mean is highly influenced by outliers – look at the tail! In a negatively skewed distribution, the mean will be lowest because the outliers are toward the lower end of the distribution. In a positively skewed distribution, the mean will be highest because the outliers are toward the higher end of the distribution.  

Test Day Tip: Draw this image on your whiteboard when you get into the exam room and free up your brain to think through questions. You may not need it, but you’ll be ready to snap up those easy points if you get a question on skewness and measures of central tendency.

You consider yourself an ethical provider, but just can't seem to get a handle on those ethics questions. Check out the tips below for navigating these types of questions.

1.  There’s no getting around this. Ethics questions are primarily application questions and to effectively answer these questions, you have to know the Code and the Standards within it. 

2.  It’s not about your applied experience as a practitioner or what you would do with a client in front of you. You have to bring the scenario back to the Code of Ethics and the Ethical Standards within it. Based on the information provided, identify the specific Standard being addressed.

3.  All the information you need to answer the question is in front of you. This isn’t the time to go down any hypothetical rabbit holes of “if I had X info…,“or “if the client…”  Choose the best answer based on the information provided. Remember, anything that is partially incorrect is completely incorrect, so you can rule out answers that seem reasonable but actually contradict another section of the Code.

If you use the information you have to apply your knowledge of the Code itself to the questions, you will be on well on your way to those correct answers!

Let’s face it, some of the language we use to describe principles of learning are loaded terms, and at the same time, we still need to know them. Use this step-by-step guide to help you breakdown operant learning scenarios with ease!

1. WHO is the behaver? Whose behavior are we interested in? 
2. Is the BEHAVIOR of interest INCREASING (reinforcement) or DECREASING (punishment)?
3. After the behavior occurs, is a STIMULUS ADDED or REMOVED (i.e., taken away)? If something is added after the behavior, let’s say a shock, then that’s positive. If something is being taken away or removed after the behavior, like a headache or a gaming system, that’s negative. Remember, things don’t have to sound good or bad to be positive or negative, it’s not about the quality -- it’s about whether something is being ADDED or REMOVED.
4. Put it all together! Use the table as a visual to help guide you.

Let’s try a scenario!

Every morning, Mara’s alarm clock starts blaring at 5am so she can get ready for her shift at the hospital. Her partner, who doesn’t need to wake up at 5am puts their pillow over their head so they don’t have to hear this awful sound. Without fail, Mara hits the snooze button so she can get some peace and quiet and repeats this every 10 minutes until she finally gets up at 5:30am. Mara’s behavior of hitting the snooze button is under the control of what type of principle of learning?

1. Whose behavior are we interested in? Mara’s behavior of hitting the snooze button.
2. Is the behavior of interest increasing or decreasing? Mara hitting the snooze button increases – this is reinforcement.
3. After the behavior occurs, is a stimulus being added or removed? Alarm clock sound is being removed – this is negative.

Mara hitting the snooze button is under the control of negative reinforcement. 

TIP:

Negative reinforcement is often about engaging in a behavior to escape an aversive stimulus. Taking medication to get rid of a headache. Running away from a crowded festival to reduce feelings of anxiety. A good way to remember this is: 

Negative Reinforcement = Needs Relief

… and I am a Content Developer & EPPP Coach with Triad. I’m a Licensed Clinical Psychologist and the Clinical Director for a mobile crisis/crisis prevention program for children & adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities and co-occurring mental health concerns. I'm a generalist in the truest sense, and have had the opportunity to work with children & adolescents in school-based & outpatient settings, young adults at a college counseling center, and adults at a local free clinic. While I love direct client work, I really enjoy helping professionals grow and come into their own from internship years and beyond. I live in the mountains of Southwest Virginia (Go Hokies!) and love being outdoors with my family and the pups!